Acetaldehyde – Occupational Exposures

by | Feb 26, 2019

Acetaldehyde Occupational Exposures

CONTENTS

Overview

Prevalence Estimate

Methods and Data

Acetaldehyde Occupational Exposures

Overview

Inhalation is the most important route of occupational exposure.[1] CAREX Canada estimates that approximately 6,400 Canadians are exposed to acetaldehyde in the workplace.

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The largest industrial groups exposed are plastic products manufacturing, farms, and bakeries and tortilla manufacturing. By occupation, the greatest exposures occur among labourers in food and beverage processing, managers in agriculture, and process control and machine operators in food and beverage processing.

In food manufacturing, workers are exposed to acetaldehyde during diacetyl production. Diacetyl is a substance used for food flavouring, especially in microwave popcorn. Recent studies from the Netherlands[2] and the US[3] have measured acetaldehyde exposure during production of diacetyl.

Because acetaldehyde is also a combustion product, exposure in the petroleum, transportation, waste burning, fire fighting, and wood products industries is also possible.[4]

Prevalence Estimate

Results show that approximately 6,400 Canadians are exposed to acetaldehyde in their workplaces; 69% of these workers are male. The largest industrial groups exposed are plastic products manufacturing, farms, and bakeries and tortilla manufacturing. In the farming industry, acetaldehyde is a major degradation production of a common molluscicide called metaldehyde.

When exposure is examined by occupation, the largest exposed group is labourers in food and beverage processing (1,100 workers exposed), managers in agriculture (720 workers exposed), process control and machine operators in food and beverage processing (720 workers exposed), and plastics processing machine operators (620 workers exposed).

The number of workers exposed to acetaldehyde decreased by approximately 2,200 workers from 2006 to 2016 (a 26% decrease). This was primarily driven by a decrease in the number of workers in the forestry industry.

Workers exposed to acetaldehyde by industry in 2016

Workers exposed to acetaldehyde by region in 2016

Click the second tab to view total number of workers exposed.

* = < 50 workers
Methods and Data

Our Occupational Approach page outlines the general approach used to calculate prevalence and exposure level estimates for workplace exposures.

Data Sources

Data used in developing the occupational estimates for acetaldehyde were collected from several sources:

  1. The Canadian Workplace Exposure Database (CWED) contains approximately 1,500 measurements for acetaldehyde exposure. These measurements were collected during the years 1981 to 2004 in Ontario and British Columbia workplaces.
  2. Canadian and US scientific peer reviewed publications that addressed acetaldehyde exposure in Canada and the United States.
  3. Grey literature including technical reports from governments and international bodies.

Prevalence Estimate Method

CAREX defines exposure to acetaldehyde as inhalation exposure at work to levels above those encountered in the general environment.

To determine the number of workers potentially exposed to acetaldehyde at work, CAREX occupational exposure experts used methods previously established in other peer-reviewed CAREX projects in Europe. A series of steps were taken to assign exposure proportions to occupations and industries at risk of exposure to acetaldehyde.

  1. Occupations and industries at risk of possible exposure to acetaldehyde were identified using any combination of data sources described above.
  2. The total number of workers in each identified occupation and industry intersection was obtained from Statistics Canada 2016 census data.
  3. A percentage of workers exposed was assigned to that occupation and industry intersection. Percentages were determined by consultation with existing evidence in the data sources, previously established methods from the Europe CAREX estimates and the expert judgement of CAREX occupational hygienists.
  4. The number of workers in the identified group is multiplied by the assigned percentage to calculate the prevalence estimate of workers exposed to acetaldehyde.
Sources

1. National Toxicology Program (NTP). 14th report on carcinogens for Acetaldehyde (2016) (PDF)
2. Gilbert NL, Guay M, David Miller J, Judek S, Chan CC, Dales RE. “Levels and determinants of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acrolein in residential indoor air in Prince Edward Island, Canada.” Environ Res 2005; 99(1):11-17.
3. Hodgson AT, Beal D, McIlvaine JE. “Sources of formaldehyde, other aldehydes and terpenes in a new manufactured house.”Indoor Air 2002;12(4): 235-242.
4. Environment Canada and Health Canada. Priority Substances List assessment report (CEPA) for Acetaldehyde (2000) (PDF)

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The CAREX Canada team offers two regular newsletters: the biannual e-Bulletin summarizing information on upcoming webinars, new publications, and updates to estimates and tools; and the monthly Carcinogens in the News, a digest of media articles, government reports, and academic literature related to the carcinogens we’ve classified as important for surveillance in Canada. Sign up for one or both of these newsletters below.

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Vancouver Campus
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Vancouver, BC  V6T 1Z3
CANADA

© 2025 CAREX Canada

Email: [email protected]

Simon Fraser University

FAQs
Terms of Use
Glossary

As a national organization, our work extends across borders into many Indigenous lands throughout Canada. We gratefully acknowledge that our host institution, the University of British Columbia Point Grey campus, is located on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) people.

Acetaldehyde – Resources

by | Feb 18, 2019

Acetaldehyde Resources

Tools

Special topics pages

Publications

Videos

Exposure Reduction

Our team has performed a detailed scan of exposure control resources and assembled a compilation of key publications and resources. These are organized by type of exposure (environmental or occupational) and by specificity (general or carcinogen-specific). Please visit our Exposure Reduction Resources page to view.

We also recommend exploring the Prevention Policies Directory, a freely-accessible online tool offering information on policies related to cancer and chronic disease prevention. Providing summaries of the policies and direct access to the policy documents, the Directory allows users to search by carcinogen, risk factor, jurisdiction, geographical location, and document type. For questions about this resource, please contact a member of the Prevention Team at the Canadian Partnership Against Cancer at [email protected].

Subscribe to our newsletters

The CAREX Canada team offers two regular newsletters: the biannual e-Bulletin summarizing information on upcoming webinars, new publications, and updates to estimates and tools; and the monthly Carcinogens in the News, a digest of media articles, government reports, and academic literature related to the carcinogens we’ve classified as important for surveillance in Canada. Sign up for one or both of these newsletters below.

Subscribe

CAREX Canada

School of Population and Public Health

University of British Columbia
Vancouver Campus
370A - 2206 East Mall
Vancouver, BC  V6T 1Z3
CANADA

© 2025 CAREX Canada

Email: [email protected]

Simon Fraser University

FAQs
Terms of Use
Glossary

As a national organization, our work extends across borders into many Indigenous lands throughout Canada. We gratefully acknowledge that our host institution, the University of British Columbia Point Grey campus, is located on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) people.

Acrolein

Acrolein

by | May 31, 2021

Acrolein Profile

OTHERS – PROBABLE CARCINOGEN (IARC 2A)

Contents

General Information

Regulations and Guidelines

Main Uses

Canadian Production and Trade

Environmental Exposures Overview

Occupational Exposures Overview

Sources

CAS no. 107-02-8
IARC MONOGRAPH SUPPL. 7, 1987 (GROUP 3)
IARC MONOGRAPH VOL. 63, 1995 (GROUP 3)
IARC MONOGRAPH VOL. 128, 2020 (GROUP 2A)

How did CAREX choose this agent for review?

Acrolein Profile

General Information

Acrolein is a highly reactive and volatile clear or yellow flammable liquid.[1] It is a chemical synthesized for use as a pesticide in Canada, and is also generated during natural processes (e.g. during forest fires, photo-oxidation of compounds in the air, fermentation, and within the body) and through human-driven activities (e.g. during the combustion of organic materials including fuels, high temperature cooking, smoking, and during chemical manufacturing).[2,3,4,5] Acrolein may also be referred to as acrylaldehyde and 2-propenal. There are numerous other synonyms and product names; see the Hazardous Substances Data Bank for more information.[6]

In 2020, acrolein was classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A).[7] This decision was based on sufficient evidence of the carcinogenicity of acrolein in two rodent species (mice and rats), and strong evidence that acrolein shows many key characteristics of carcinogens.[7,8]

Other health effects associated with acrolein exposure include eye and respiratory irritation, and changes in lung function and tissue damage within the respiratory tract.[2,9] Acute exposure may lead to respiratory distress, eye and nasal irritation, and skin irritation or burns.[10]

Regulations and Guidelines

Occupational exposure limits (OEL)[11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]

Canadian JurisdictionsOEL (ppm)
Canada Labour Code0.1 [c, sk]
AB, BC, MB, NT, NB, NL, NS, NU, ON, PE, SK0.1 [c, sk]
QC, YT0.1
0.3 [stel]
Other JurisdictionsOEL (ppm)
ACGIH 2020 TLV0.1 [c sk]
ppm = parts per million
sk = easily absorbed through the skin
stel = short term exposure limit (15 min. maximum)
c = ceiling (not to be exceeded any time)
ACGIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
TLV = threshold limit value

Canadian environmental guidelines and standards*

JurisdictionLimitYear
Health Canada – Residential Indoor Air Quality GuidelinesShort-term (1h): 38 µg/m3
Long-term (24h): 0.44 µg/m3		2021[2]
Alberta and Ontario Ambient Air Quality CriteriaShort-term (1h): 4.5 µg/m3
Long-term (24h): 0.4 µg/m3		2013[26] 2019[27]
Indoor Air Reference Level0.35 µg/m3†2008[28]
Ontario’s Air Pollution – Local Air Quality Regulation StandardsOne-hour standard: 4.5 µg/m3
24-hour standard: 0.4 µg/ m3
Upper risk thresholds:
Half-hour: 12 µg/ m3
24-hour: 4 µg/ m3		2020[29]
BC’s Contaminated Sites Regulation, BC Reg 375/96Sets soil standards to protect human health:
Agricultural and low density residential sites: 8 μg/g
Wildlands, urban park, and high density residential sites: 15 μg/g
Commercial and industrial sites: 100 μg/g		2021[30]
*Standards are legislated and legally enforceable, while guidelines (including Ontario ambient air quality criteria) describe concentrations of contaminants in the environment (e.g. air, water) that are protective against adverse health, environmental, or aesthetic (e.g. odour) effects
†For the protection of respiratory epithelial lesions

Canadian agencies/organizations

AgencyDesignation/PositionYear
National Classification System for Contaminated SitesRank = “High hazard”2008[31]
CEPASchedule 1, paragraph ‘c’1999[32]
Environment Canada’s National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI)Reportable to NPRI if manufactured, processed, or otherwise used at quantities greater than 10 tonnes2019[33]
Acrolein was not included in other Canadian government guidelines, standards, or chemical listings reviewed.

Main Uses

In Canada, acrolein is primarily used as a pesticide to control weeds and algae in irrigation canals and to control bacteria and fungi in water injection systems during crude oil extraction.[4] There are currently three acrolein products registered in Canada under the Pest Control Products Act: a technical grade active ingredient, a commercial class product, and a restricted class end-use product.[34] In 2018, 25,000-100,000 kg of acrolein active ingredient were sold in 2018 in Canada for pest management purposes.[35] Acrolein is also used in Canada by oil companies in closed systems to scavenge poisonous hydrogen sulphide from fluids, and to a lesser extent, by laboratories.[4]

Outside of Canada, acrolein has been used to synthesize other chemicals (e.g. acrylic acid), to manufacture an animal feed supplement, and to make chemical weapons.[3,5] Due to its pungent odour, it is also used as a warning agent in methyl chloride refrigerants.[5]

Canadian Production and Trade

Acrolein is not commercially produced in Canada. [4] It is imported primarily from the United States. In 1994 and 1997, acrolein was present in some hazardous wastes imported into Canada (2 kg). [4]

Trade Data [36]

 Activity2020 (tonnes)
Import*1,298
Export*9
*For “Acyclic aldehydes, without other oxygen function (excluding methanal [formaldehyde] and ethanal [acetaldehyde]): acrolein”

Environmental Exposures Overview

Environmental exposure to acrolein primarily takes place by inhalation, and is highest in those who smoke or are exposed to second-hand smoke.[37]

Acrolein concentrations are higher in indoor residential settings compared to the outdoors, with observed levels being 2 to 20 times higher.[2] Smoking and cooking with oils are the main sources of acrolein indoors, but incense, wood-burning fireplaces, and gas stoves are also contributors.[2,38,39] Per cigarette smoked, between 3 to 220 µg of acrolein are generated, which can increase the concentration of acrolein within a room by 0.9 to 4.6 µg/m3.[5] Similarly, e-cigarettes have been shown to generate between 0.02 to 21 µg per puff, depending on the product.[2] Substantial e-cigarette use in residential settings are estimated to increase indoor acrolein levels by greater than 2 µg/m3.[40] Cooking or frying food in oil is also associated with increased acrolein levels. In one study, acrolein concentrations ranged from 26.4 to 64.5 µg/m3 five minutes after frying food in a well-ventilated apartment.[41] Studies measuring indoor air concentrations of acrolein in homes in Canada have found levels ranging from 0.1 to 9.1 µg/m3.[2,42]

Acrolein in outdoor air is generated during the combustion or organic matter and fuels.[2] Motor vehicles contribute the greatest emissions, with an estimated 3,000,000 kg emitted each year in Canada.[4] Additionally, aircraft and off-road vehicles emit acrolein, although the amount is not known.[2] Acrolein may also be generated through industrial processes, including incineration, pulp and paper production, oriented-strand board production, and coal electricity generation, but to a much lesser extent compared to vehicles.[4] Natural sources include forest fires and fermentation, but the estimated amount of acrolein released from these sources is not known.  The National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS) measured acrolein from 11 different sites across Canada from 2009 to 2013. Acrolein was detectable at all sites, and the median concentration varied from 0.033-0.75 µg/m3 (depending on sampling technique), with the maximum concentrations ranging from 0.999-1.58 µg/m3.[43] However, urban areas typically have less than 0.2 µg/m3, on average.[4]

Sources of releases to Canadian waters, sediments, or soils other than the application of acrolein-based pesticides have not been identified. Drinking water samples conducted in Ontario and the Atlantic provinces,[3,4] as well as surface water samples from the Great Lakes did not yield any detectable acrolein.[4,44] Acrolein has been detected in some foods, including molasses, white bread, and chicken breast muscle, as well as in foods that have been cooked in oil.[4] Overall, acrolein concentrations in foods are considered low (less than 1 µg/g).[3,4]

CAREX Canada has not estimated the extent of environmental exposure to acrolein and associated cancer risk. However, it has been estimated that on average, an adult inhales 26 µg of acrolein per day,[4] and that the exposure levels for non-smokers in a household with second-hand smoke is 2.2 to 3.7 times higher than those living without household second-hand smoke.[45] In addition, the World Health Organization has estimated that between 5% and 10% of the Canadian population is expected to be exposed to a 24 hour time-weighted average concentration of 5 µg/m3.[3]

NPRI 2017[46]

Substance name: ‘Acrolein’

CategoryQuantity (tonnes)Industry

Released into air

102

Veneer, Plywood and Engineered Wood Product Manufacturing (3212);
Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution (2211);
Universities (6113);
Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Mills (3221);
Sawmills and Wood Preservation (3211)

Occupational Exposures Overview

Inhalation is the major route of exposure to acrolein at work, but dermal contact may also occur when acrolein is being used.[1]

Occupational exposure to acrolein occurs when wood, plastic, and petrochemical fuels are burned, when foods are cooked in oil, and when acrolein is being applied as a pesticide.[5] Those who work in high vehicle traffic areas are at increased risk of exposure, in addition to those who work near irrigation canals that are treated with acrolein.[5]

Acrolein exposure occurs within many occupations, including, but not limited to, workers within the following settings: plastic products, pulp, paper, paperboard, metal, glass products, and electronic equipment manufacturing; restaurant kitchens, bakeries, and food factories; shipyards; engine workshops; truck maintenance; pitch and coal coking plants; quarries; oil seed mills; and highway toll booths.[47,48] In addition, firefighters can be exposed to significant concentrations; for example, in a study of over 220 structural fires, firefighters were exposed to concentrations as high as 6.9 mg/m3 (6,900 µg/m3).[49]

Sources

1. US EPA. Toxicological Review of Acrolein (2003) (PDF)
2. Health Canada. Residential Indoor Air Quality Guidelines (2021)
3. Gomes R, Meek M, World Health Organization, International Programme on Chemical Safety. Acrolein (2002)
4. Environment Canada, Health Canada. Priority Substances List Assessment Report: Acrolein (2000)
5. US Department of Health and Human Services. Toxicological Profile for Acrolein (2007) (PDF)
6. US National Library of Medicine. PubChem (Search term: ‘Acrolein’)​​
7. International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Volume 128: Acrolein, crotonaldehyde, and arecoline (2021)
8. Smith MT, Guyton KZ, Gibbons CF, Fritz JM, Portier CJ, Rusyn I, DeMarini DM, Caldwell JC, Kavlock RJ, Lambert PF, Hecht SS, Bucher JR, Stewart BW, Baan RA, Cogliano VJ, Straif K. “Key Characteristics of Carcinogens as a Basis for Organizing Data on Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis.” Environ Health Perspect 2016;124(6):713-21.
9. Bein K, Leikauf GD. “Acrolein – a pulmonary hazard.” Mol Nutr Food Res 2011;55(9):1342-1360.
10. Rodriguez L, Prado J, Beckman J, Calvert GM. “Acute pesticide-related illness resulting from occupational exposure to acrolein – Washington and California, 1993-2009.” MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013;62(16):313-314.
11. Ministry of Justice. Canada Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (SOR/86-304) (2019)
12. Government of Alberta. Occupational Health and Safety Code. Alberta Regulation 87/2009 (2019) (PDF)
13. WorkSafeBC. Occupational Health and Safety Regulation, BC Reg 296/97, Part 5 (2020)
14. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII) Manitoba Regulation 217/2006 Workplace Safety and Health Regulation (2022)
15. Justice and Office of the Attorney General. Government of New Brunswick’s General Regulation 91-191, under the Occupational Health and Safety Act (2020)
16. Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Regulation 5,12 Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (2018)
17. Government of the Northwest Territories. Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, R-039-2015 (2020) (PDF)
18. Government of Nova Scotia. Workplace Health and Safety Regulations made under Section 82 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (2015)
19. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII). Government of Nunavut’s Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, Nu Reg 003-2016 (2010)
20. Ontario Ministry of Labour. Current Occupational Exposure Limits for Ontario Workplaces Required Under Regulation 833 (2020)
21. Government of Prince Edward Island. Occupational Health and Safety Act Regulations Chapter 0-1 (2013) (PDF)
22. Government of Quebec. Regulation Respecting Occupational Health and Safety (2020)
23. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII) The Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, 1996 (2022)
24. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII). Yukon’s Occupational Health Regulations, O.I.C. 1986/164 (2020) (PDF)
25. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Annotated PELs (2020)
26. Alberta Environment and Parks. Ambient Air Quality Objectives (2019)
27. Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change. Ontario’s Ambient Air Quality Criteria (2019)
28. Government of Canada. Summary of indoor air reference levels (2018)
29. Government of Ontario. O. Reg. 419/05: Air Pollution – Local Air Quality (2019)
30. Government of British Columbia. Contaminated Sites Regulation B.C. Reg. 375/96 (2021)
31. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). National Classification System for Contaminated Sites (2008) (PDF)
32. Environment and Climate Change Canada. CEPA List of Toxic Substances (2020)
33. Environment Canada. National Pollutant Release Inventory: Substance list (2019)
34. Health Canada. Pesticide Label Search (search term: “acrolein”) (2021)
35. Health Canada. Pest Control Products Sales Report for 2020 (2020)
36. International Trade Centre. Trademap (2021)
37. Stevens JF, Maier CS. “Acrolein: Sources, metabolism, and biomolecular interactions relevant to human health and disease.” Mol Nutr Food Res 2008;52(1):7-25.
38. Stocco C, MacNeill M, Wang D, Xu X, Guay M, Brook J, Wheeler AJ. “Predicting personal exposure of Windsor, Ontario residents to volatile organic compounds using indoor measurements and survey data.” Atmos Environ 2008;42(23):5905-5912.
39. Ho SSH, Yu JZ. “Concentrations of formaldehyde and other carbonyls in environments affected by incense burning.” J Environ Monit 2002;4(5):728-733.
40. Logue JM, Sleiman M, Montesinos VN, Russell ML, Litter MI, Benowitz NL, Gundel LA, Destaillats H. “Emissions from Electronic Cigarettes: Assessing Vapers’ Intake of Toxic Compounds, Secondhand Exposures, and the Associated Health Impacts.” Environ Sci Technol 2017;51(16):9271-9279.
41. Seaman VY, Bennett DH, Cahill TM. “Indoor acrolein emission and decay rates resulting from domestic cooking events.” Atmos Environ  2009;43(39):6199-6204.
42. Gilbert NL, Guay M, Miller JD, Judek S, Chan CC, Dales RE. “Levels and determinants of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acrolein in residential indoor air in Prince Edward Island, Canada.” Environ Res 2005;99(1):11-17.
43. Galarneau E, Wang D, Dabek-Zlotorzynska E, Siu M, Celo V, Tardif M, Harnish D, Jiang Y. “Air toxics in Canada measured by the National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS) program and their relation to ambient air quality guidelines.” J Air Waste Manag Assoc 2016;66(2):184-200.
44. Otson R. “Purgeable Organics in Great Lakes Raw and Treated Water.” Int J Environ Anal Chem 1987;31(1):41-53.
45. Nazaroff WW, Singer BC. “Inhalation of hazardous air pollutants from environmental tobacco smoke in US residences.” J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2004;14 Suppl 1:S71-7.
46. Government of Canada. NPRI Data Search (2021)
47. IARC Working Group on the Eavluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. “Dry cleaning, some chlorinated solvents and other industrial chemicals.” IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks to Humans 1995;63.
48. Belloc-Santaliestra M, Van Der Haar R, Molinero-Ruiz E. “Occupational exposure assessment of highway toll station workers to vehicle engine exhaust.” J Occup Environ Hyg 2015;12(1):51-61.
49. Ghilarducci DP, Tjeerdema RS. “Fate and effects of acrolein.” Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 1995;144:95-146.

 

NEXT: Resources>>

Subscribe to our newsletters

The CAREX Canada team offers two regular newsletters: the biannual e-Bulletin summarizing information on upcoming webinars, new publications, and updates to estimates and tools; and the monthly Carcinogens in the News, a digest of media articles, government reports, and academic literature related to the carcinogens we’ve classified as important for surveillance in Canada. Sign up for one or both of these newsletters below.

Subscribe

CAREX Canada

School of Population and Public Health

University of British Columbia
Vancouver Campus
370A - 2206 East Mall
Vancouver, BC  V6T 1Z3
CANADA

© 2025 CAREX Canada

Email: [email protected]

Simon Fraser University

FAQs
Terms of Use
Glossary

As a national organization, our work extends across borders into many Indigenous lands throughout Canada. We gratefully acknowledge that our host institution, the University of British Columbia Point Grey campus, is located on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) people.

Acrolein – Resources

by | Jun 10, 2021

Acrolein Resources

Tools

Publications

Videos

Exposure Reduction

Our team has performed a detailed scan of exposure control resources and assembled a compilation of key publications and resources. These are organized by type of exposure (environmental or occupational) and by specificity (general or carcinogen-specific). Please visit our Exposure Reduction Resources page to view.

We also recommend exploring the Prevention Policies Directory, a freely-accessible online tool offering information on policies related to cancer and chronic disease prevention. Providing summaries of the policies and direct access to the policy documents, the Directory allows users to search by carcinogen, risk factor, jurisdiction, geographical location, and document type. For questions about this resource, please contact a member of the Prevention Team at the Canadian Partnership Against Cancer at [email protected].

Subscribe to our newsletters

The CAREX Canada team offers two regular newsletters: the biannual e-Bulletin summarizing information on upcoming webinars, new publications, and updates to estimates and tools; and the monthly Carcinogens in the News, a digest of media articles, government reports, and academic literature related to the carcinogens we’ve classified as important for surveillance in Canada. Sign up for one or both of these newsletters below.

Subscribe

CAREX Canada

School of Population and Public Health

University of British Columbia
Vancouver Campus
370A - 2206 East Mall
Vancouver, BC  V6T 1Z3
CANADA

© 2025 CAREX Canada

Email: [email protected]

Simon Fraser University

FAQs
Terms of Use
Glossary

As a national organization, our work extends across borders into many Indigenous lands throughout Canada. We gratefully acknowledge that our host institution, the University of British Columbia Point Grey campus, is located on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) people.

Acrylamide

Acrylamide

by | Mar 20, 2019

Acrylamide Profile

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS – PROBABLE CARCINOGEN (IARC 2A)

Contents

General Information

Regulations and Guidelines

Main Uses

Canadian Production and Trade

Environmental Exposures Overview

Occupational Exposures Overview

Sources

CAS No. 79-06-1
IARC Monograph Vol. 60, 1994 (Group 2A)

How did CAREX choose this agent for review?

Acrylamide Profile

General Information

Acrylamide is a colourless or white crystalline powder.[1] Since it was first synthesized in 1949, acrylamide has been used as an intermediary in producing polyacrylamide and acrylamide copolymers.[2] Polymerized acrylamide is not toxic, but acrylamide monomer is, and can remain as a contaminant in the polymers.[1] Acrylamide may also be referred to as 2-propenamide or acrylic acid amide.[3] There are numerous other synonyms and product names; see the Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) for more information.[3]

Acrylamide has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as Group 2A, probably carcinogenic to humans.[4] The evaluation was based on evidence in animals and additional mechanistic data, as neither of the two available studies of workers exposed to acrylamide provided sufficient data on carcinogenicity in humans.[4] 
Ingesting acrylamide caused cancers at a variety of sites in rats, including the thyroid and testis region, mammary gland, thyroid, central nervous system, oral cavity, and uterus.[4] Other studies showed increases in lung tumours and skin cancer in mice.[4]

Additionally, acrylamide can cause damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems[4] and contact dermatitis.[5]

Regulations and Guidelines

Occupational exposure limits (OEL) [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20]

Canadian JurisdictionsOEL (mg/m3)
Canada Labour Code0.03 [i, v, sk, dsen]
BC, MB, ON, NL, PE, NS0.03 [i, v, sk, dsen]
AB, NB0.03 [sk]
QC0.03 [sk, em]
SK, NT, NU0.03 [i, v, sk]
0.09 [stel]
YT0.3 [sk]
0.6 [stel]
Other JurisdictionOEL (mg/m3)
ACGIH 2020 TLV0.03 [i, v, sk, dsen]
mg/m3 = milligrams per cubic meter
i = inhalable fraction
v = vapour
sk = easily absorbed through the skin
em = exposure must be reduced to the minimum
dsen = dermal sensitization
stel = short term exposure limit (15 min. maximum)
ACGIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
TLV = threshold limit value

Canadian environmental guidelines and standards*

JurisdictionLimitYear
Cosmetic HotlistNot permitted2011[21]
Ontario Ambient Air Quality Criteria24 hour: 15 μg/m32016[22]
Ontario’s Air Pollution – Local Air Quality Regulation standards24-hour standard: 15 µg/m3; Prohibited discharge into the air if the concentration of acrylamide exceeds the standard2016[23]
BC’s Contaminated Sites Regulation, BC Reg 375/96Sets soil standards for the protection of human health:
Agricultural and low density residential sites: 3 μg/g
Urban park and high density residential sites: 6 μg/g
Commercial and industrial sites: 65 μg/gDrinking water: 0.1 μg/L		2017[24]
* Standards are legislated and legally enforceable, while guidelines (including Ontario ambient air quality criteria) describe concentrations of contaminants in the environment (e.g. air, water) that are protective against adverse health, environmental, or aesthetic (e.g. odour) effects
μg/g = micrograms per gram
μg/L = micrograms per litre

Canadian agencies/organizations

AgencyDesignation/PositionYear
Health CanadaDSL – high priority substance with the greatest potential for exposure2006[25]
Challenge to IndustryBatch 5 (as 2-propenamide)2008[26]
Environment Canada’s National Pollutant Release InventoryReportable to NPRI if manufactured, processed, or otherwise used at quantities greater than 10 tonnes2016[27]
CEPA List of Toxic SubstancesSchedule 1 (paragraph c, as 2-propenamide)2010[28]
DSL = domestic substance list

Acrylamide was not included in other Canadian government guidelines, standards, or chemical listings reviewed.

Main Uses

Acrylamide is used primarily to produce polymers (polyacrylamides), which have many industrial uses. For example, grout, used in the mining industry and to seal sewer lines and manholes;[29] and flocculants, used in water treatment, crude oil processing, pulp and paper processing, soil conditioning/stabilization, mineral processing, and concrete processing.[5,29]

Smaller quantities are used in laboratories for electrophoresis gels, in permanent-press fabrics, adhesive manufacturing, and food processing[5,29]

Canadian Production and Trade

Acrylamide is not produced in Canada.[30] None of ‘acrylamide,’ ‘2-propenamide,’ or ‘polyacrylamide’ were included in the TradeMap database for Canada between 2001 and 2022.[31]

Environmental Exposures Overview

The main sources of environmental exposure to acrylamide are food and cigarette smoke. People may also be exposed at lower levels via drinking water and in consumer products (where residual acrylamide can be found).[2,32]

Acrylamide in food was first discovered in a 2002 study by the Swedish National Food Administration. In 2009, Health Canada initiated an acrylamide monitoring program, in which a number of food products from various brand names were tested for acrylamide.[33] Health Canada continues to monitor of acrylamide levels as part of their Food Safety Action Plan (FSAP).[34]

Acrylamide is formed in many types of foods during cooking, especially carbohydrate-rich foods.[35] In Canada, potato chips and french fries contain the highest levels of acrylamide.[36,37] Health Canada estimates that Canadians are exposed to between 0.157-0.609 µg/kg/day of acrylamide, with children (aged 1-8) ingesting higher amounts on a body weight basis than other groups.[37] To reduce the amount of acrylamide in foods, Health Canada amended the Food and Drug Regulations in 2012 to allow an enzyme in specific food products, which reduces the amount of acrylamide produced during the cooking process.[37] Health Canada encourages Canadian food companies to further adopt ways to decrease the level of acrylamide in food.[35,37]

Cigarette smoke also contains acrylamide, creating a source of exposure to smokers as well as those exposed to Second Hand Smoke.[38]

As of 2001, polyacrylamide was used in about 100 cosmetic formulations (at concentrations of up to 2.8%). Acrylamide monomer can remain as a contaminant in polyacrylamide (concentrations from < 0.01% to 0.1%).[39]

Acrylamide is not expected to remain in the air if released industrially; it will likely partition to water and soil.[35]

Searches of Environment Canada’s National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) and the US Consumer Product Information Database yielded the following results on current potential for exposure to acrylamide in Canada:

NPRI and US Consumer Product Information Database

NPRI 2015[40]
Substance name: ‘Acrylamide’
CategoryQuantityIndustry
Released into EnvironmentNoneBasic chemical manufacturing;
Other chemical product manufacturing
Paint, coating and adhesive manufacturing
(4 facilities)
Disposed of0.04 t
Sent to off-site recyclingNone
US Consumer Products 2016[41]
Search TermQuantityProduct Type
‘Acrylamide’6Odor neutralizers(4), adhesive(1), sealant(1)
‘Polyacrylamide’50Cosmetic creams, moisturizers, soaps,
hair conditioners, air fresheners,
fabric conditioners and glues
t = tonne

Occupational Exposures Overview

Inhalation and dermal contact are the most important routes of occupational exposure.[1]

CAREX Canada estimates that 8,700 Canadians are exposed to acrylamide in the workplace. The main industries exposed are foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors; utility system construction; and highway, street, and bridge construction. The occupations with the most workers exposed are construction trade helpers and labourers, followed by concrete finishers and underground production and development miners.​

Other sources of occupational exposure may occur in pulp and paper manufacturing, oil drilling, textile and cosmetics manufacturing, food processing, plastics manufacturing, mining, and agricultural industries.[3] People working in labs where polyacrylamide gels are prepared may also be exposed.[4]

Some occupational exposure measurements (including dermal measurements) and task-related information are available in a risk assessment from the EU.[29]

For more information, see the occupational exposure estimate for acrylamide.

Occupational Estimate
Sources

1. National Toxicology Program (NTP). 14th report on carcinogens for acrylamide (2016) (PDF)
2. National Cancer Institute. Factsheet: Acrylamide in Food and Cancer Risk (2008)
3. US National Library of Medicine. PubChem (Search term: ‘acrylamide’)​ ​
4. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Monograph summary, Volume 60 (1994) (PDF)
5. Environment Canada and Health Canada. IPCS: International Programme on Chemical Safety: Acrylamide (2000)
6. Ministry of Justice. Canada Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (SOR/86-304) (2019)
7. Government of Alberta. Occupational Health and Safety Code. Alberta Regulation 87/2009 (2019) (PDF)
8. WorkSafeBC. Occupational Health and Safety Regulation, BC Reg 296/97, Part 5 (2020)
9. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII) Manitoba Regulation 217/2006 Workplace Safety and Health Regulation (2022)
10. Justice and Office of the Attorney General. Government of New Brunswick’s General Regulation 91-191, under the Occupational Health and Safety Act (2020)
11. Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Regulation 5,12 Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (2018)
12. Government of the Northwest Territories. Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, R-039-2015 (2020) (PDF)
13. Government of Nova Scotia. Workplace Health and Safety Regulations made under Section 82 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (2015)
14. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII). Government of Nunavut’s Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, Nu Reg 003-2016 (2010)
15. Ontario Ministry of Labour. Current Occupational Exposure Limits for Ontario Workplaces Required Under Regulation 833 (2020)
16. Government of Prince Edward Island. Occupational Health and Safety Act Regulations Chapter 0-1 (2013) (PDF)
17. Government of Quebec. Regulation Respecting Occupational Health and Safety (2020)
18. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII) The Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, 1996 (2022)
19. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII). Yukon’s Occupational Health Regulations, O.I.C. 1986/164 (2020) (PDF)
20. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Annotated PELs (2020)
21. Health Canada. Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist (2019)
22. Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change. Ontario’s Ambient Air Quality Criteria (2019)
23. Government of Ontario. O. Reg. 419/05: Air Pollution – Local Air Quality (2019)
24. Government of British Columbia. Contaminated Sites Regulation B.C. Reg. 375/96 (2021)
25. Health Canada. Prioritization of the DSL (2006)
26. Government of Canada. List of all Challenge Substances, Government of Canada Chemicals Management Plan (2008)
27. Environment Canada. National Pollutant Release Inventory: Substance list (2019)
28. Environment and Climate Change Canada. CEPA List of Toxic Substances (2020)
29. European Commission. EU Risk Assessment: Acrylamide (2002) (PDF)
30. Government of Canada. 2-Propenamide (Acrylamide)- CAS Registry Number 79-06-1 (2009)
31. International Trade Centre. TradeMap (Free subscription required)
32. Environment and Climate Change Canada. Proposed Risk Management Approach from 2-Propenamide (Acrylamide) (2009)
33. Health Canada. Revised Exposure Assessment of Acrylamide in Food (2012)
34. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 2011-2013 Acrylamide in Selected Foods (2016)
35. Food & Consumer Products of Canada. Acrylamide (2016).
36. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Survey Data on Acrylamide in Food: Individual Food Products (2006)
37. Environment and Climate Change Canada. Proposed Risk Management Approach from 2-Propenamide (Acrylamide) (2009)
38. Government of Canada. Chemical Substances. 2-Propenamide (Acrylamide) (2009)
39. Cosmetic Ingredient Review Panel. “Amended final report on the safety assessment of polyacrylamide and acrylamide residues in cosmetics.” Intern Journ of Toxic 2005;24(Suppl 2): 21-50.
40. Environment and Climate Change Canada. National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) data search (Substance name: (70-06-1) Acetaldehyde)
41. Consumer Product Information Database (CPID). What’s in it? (2022) (Search term: ‘Acrylamide’)

       

NEXT: Occupational Exposures >> 

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As a national organization, our work extends across borders into many Indigenous lands throughout Canada. We gratefully acknowledge that our host institution, the University of British Columbia Point Grey campus, is located on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) people.