Acrylamide – Occupational Exposures

by CAREXCanada | Feb 26, 2019

Acrylamide Occupational Exposures

Overview

Inhalation and dermal contact are the most important routes of occupational exposure.[1] CAREX Canada estimates that 8,700 Canadians are exposed to acrylamide in the workplace.

Prevalence Estimate

Results show that approximately 8,700 Canadians are potentially exposed to acrylamide at work; 91% of these workers are male. The largest industrial group exposed is foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors where acrylamide is used in cement and concrete to slow the dehydration process and improve structural strength, as well as for water-proofing. Other industries where exposure may occur include utility system construction and highway, street, and bridge construction.

When exposure is examined by occupation, the largest exposed groups are construction trade helpers and labourers (2,800 workers exposed), followed by concrete finishers (2,200 workers exposed, underground production and development miners (530 workers exposed), and labourers in mineral and metal processing (480).

The number of workers exposed to acrylamide decreased by approximately 530 workers from 2006 to 2016 (a 6% decrease). This was primarily driven by a decrease in the number of workers in the pulp and paper industry. However, additional workers were exposed in the construction industry due to an increase in the total number of workers within the construction industry.

Workers exposed to acrylamide by industry in 2016

Workers exposed to acrylamide by region in 2016

Click the second tab to view total number of workers exposed.

* = < 50 workers

Methods and Data

Our Occupational Approach page outlines the general approach used to calculate prevalence and exposure level estimates for workplace exposures.

Data Sources

Data used in developing the occupational estimates for acrylamide were collected from several sources:

The Canadian Workplace Exposure Database (CWED) contains less than 50 measurements for acrylamide exposure. These measurements were collected during the years 1991 to 1995 in Ontario workplaces.
Canadian and US scientific peer reviewed publications that addressed acrylamide exposure in Canada and the United States.
Grey literature including technical reports from governments and international bodies.

Prevalence Estimate Method

CAREX defines exposure to acrylamide as inhalation exposure at work to acrylamide or polyacrylamide (containing acrylamide monomer) likely exceeding non-occupational exposure (i.e. from food sources).

To determine the number of workers potentially exposed to acrylamide at work, CAREX occupational exposure experts used methods previously established in other peer-reviewed CAREX projects in Europe. A series of steps were taken to assign exposure proportions to occupations and industries at risk of exposure to acrylamide.

Occupations and industries at risk of possible exposure to acrylamide were identified using any combination of data sources described above.
The total number of workers in each identified occupation and industry intersection was obtained from Statistics Canada 2016 census data.
A percentage of workers exposed was assigned to that occupation and industry intersection. Percentages were determined by consultation with existing evidence in the data sources, previously established methods from the Europe CAREX estimates and the expert judgement of CAREX occupational hygienists.
The number of workers in the identified group is multiplied by the assigned percentage to calculate the prevalence estimate of workers exposed to acrylamide.

Sources

1. National Toxicology Program (NTP). 14th report on carcinogens for acrylamide (2016) (PDF)

2. US National Library of Medicine. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary for CID 6579, Acrylamide

3. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Monograph summary, Volume 60 (1994) (PDF)

4. European Commission. EU Risk Assessment: Acrylamide (2002) (PDF)

NEXT: Resources >>

CAREX Canada

School of Population and Public Health

University of British Columbia
Vancouver Campus
370A - 2206 East Mall
Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3
CANADA

Email: [email protected]

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As a national organization, our work extends across borders into many Indigenous lands throughout Canada. We gratefully acknowledge that our host institution, the University of British Columbia Point Grey campus, is located on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) people.

Acrylamide – Resources

by CAREXCanada | Feb 18, 2019

SUBSTANCE PROFILE

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES

RESOURCES

Acrylamide Resources

Tools

eWORK

Publications

Peters CE, Ge CB, Hall AL, Davies HW, Demers PA. “CAREX Canada: an enhanced model for assessing occupational carcinogen exposure.” Occup Environ Med 2015;72(1):64-71.

Videos

Exposure Reduction

Our team has performed a detailed scan of exposure control resources and assembled a compilation of key publications and resources. These are organized by type of exposure (environmental or occupational) and by specificity (general or carcinogen-specific). Please visit our Exposure Reduction Resources page to view.

We also recommend exploring the Prevention Policies Directory, a freely-accessible online tool offering information on policies related to cancer and chronic disease prevention. Providing summaries of the policies and direct access to the policy documents, the Directory allows users to search by carcinogen, risk factor, jurisdiction, geographical location, and document type. For questions about this resource, please contact a member of the Prevention Team at the Canadian Partnership Against Cancer at [email protected].

CAREX Canada

School of Population and Public Health

University of British Columbia
Vancouver Campus
370A - 2206 East Mall
Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3
CANADA

Email: [email protected]

FAQs
Terms of Use
Glossary

Acrylonitrile

by CAREXCanada | Mar 20, 2019

SUBSTANCE PROFILE

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES

RESOURCES

Acrylonitrile Profile

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS – KNOWN CARCINOGEN (IARC 1)

General Information

Regulations and Guidelines

Main Uses

Canadian Production and Trade

Environmental Exposures Overview

Occupational Exposures Overview

Sources

CAS No. 107-13-1

IARC Monograph Vol. 136, 2024 (Group 1)

IARC Monograph Vol. 71, 1999 (Group 2B)

How did CAREX choose this agent for review?

Acrylonitrile Profile

General Information

Acrylonitrile is a volatile, highly reactive, colourless liquid.[1] It is soluble in water and many other common organic solvents.[2] Acrylonitrile does not occur naturally,[3] but has been an important industrial chemical since the 1940s.[1]

Acrylonitrile may also be referred to as vinyl cyanide or cyanoethylene.[4] There are numerous other synonyms and product names; see the Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) for more information.[4]

Acrylonitrile was classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 2024 as Group 1, carcinogenic to humans, based on sufficient evidence for lung cancer and limited evidence for bladder cancer in humans[5]. The evidence was mainly from studies that examined exposure to workers producing or using acrylonitrile[5]. There was also sufficient evidence for cancer in experimental animals[5].

Inhalation of acrylonitrile can cause respiratory irritation and, at higher levels, neurological symptoms including dizziness, weakness, headache, and impaired judgment.[6] Dermal exposure can result in skin irritation and blistering.[6]

Regulations and Guidelines

Occupational exposure limits (OEL) [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]

Canadian Jurisdictions	OEL (ppm)
Canada Labour Code	2 [sk]
BC, AB, MB, NL, PE, NB, NS	2 [sk]
ON	2 [sk] 10 [c]
NT, NU, SK	2 [sk] 4 [stel]
QC	2 [sk, em]
YT	20 [sk] 30 [stel]
Other Jurisdiction	OEL (ppm)
ACGIH 2020 TLV	2 [sk]

ppm = parts per million
sk = easily absorbed through the skin
c = ceiling (not to be exceeded at any time)
stel = short term exposure limit (15 min. maximum)
em = exposure must be reduced to the minimum
ACGIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
TLV = threshold limit value

Canadian environmental guidelines and standards*

Jurisdiction	Limit	Year
BC’s Contaminated Sites Regulation, BC Reg 375/96	Sets soil standards for the protection of human health: Agricultural and low density residential sites: 15 μg/g Urban park and high density residential sites: 25 μg/g Commercial and industrial sites: 60 μg/g Drinking water: 5 μg/L Sets vapour standards for the protection of human health: Agricultural, urban park, residential use standard: 0.5 μg/m³ Commercial use standard: 0.5 μg/m³ Industrial use standard: 1.5 μg/m³ Parkade use standard: 1.0 μg/m³ (Vapours derived from soil, sediment, or water)	2020[22]
Ontario Ambient Air Quality Criteria	Annual: 0.12 µg/m³ 24 hour: 0.6 µg/m³	2016[23]
Alberta Ambient Air Quality Objectives	Annual: 2 µg/m³ 1 hour: 43 µg/m³	2017[24]
Quebec’s Clean Air Regulation	1 year limit: 12 µg/m³; Prohibited discharge into the air if the concentration of acrylonitrile exceeds the standard	2011[25]
Ontario’s Air Pollution – Local Air Quality Regulation Standards	24-hour standard: 0.6 µg/m³; Prohibited discharge into the air if the concentration of acrylonitrile exceeds the standard	2020[26]

*Standards are legislated and legally enforceable, while guidelines (including Ontario ambient air quality criteria) describe concentrations of contaminants in the environment (e.g. air, water) that are protective against adverse health, environmental, or aesthetic (e.g. odour) effects

Canadian agencies/organizations

Agency	Designation/Position	Year
Health Canada	DSL – low priority substance (already risk managed)	2006[27]
CEPA	Schedule 1, paragraph ‘c’ (human health)	1999[28]
Environment Canada	Pollution Prevention Plans – Part 4 of CEPA 1999	2003[2]
National Classification System for Contaminated Sites	Rank = “High hazard”, potential human carcinogen	2008[29]
Environment Canada’s National Pollutant Release Inventory	Reportable to NPRI if manufactured, processed, or otherwise used at quantities greater than 1,000 kg	2016[30]

DSL = domestic substance list
CEPA = Canadian Environmental Protection Act

Acrylonitrile was not included in other Canadian government guidelines, standards, or chemical listings reviewed.

Main Uses

Acrylonitrile is widely used in a variety of industrial applications.[1] For example, it is used extensively to manufacture acrylic fibres, resins, plastics, and nitrile rubbers.[1] Common resins containing acrylonitrile include acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), which is used in business machines and construction material, and styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN), which is used in automotive applications, household goods, and packaging.[1]

Acrylonitrile is also a significant chemical intermediate in producing adiponitrile (used to produce nylon) and acrylamide.[31] Specialty applications of acrylonitrile include producing carbon fibres that reinforce composites for aircraft and the aerospace industry.[31]

Historically, acrylonitrile was used as a pesticide when mixed with carbon tetrachloride;[2] using acrylonitrile as a pesticide ceased in Canada in 1976.[3]

Canadian Production and Trade

Acrylonitrile is not produced in Canada, but it is imported to produce adiponitrile, nitrile-butadiene rubber, diamines, ABS polymers, styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) polymers, and styrene-butadiene latex.[32] Most acrylonitrile (2,750 tonnes) is imported from the United States and is used during the production of SAN foams and polymers, acrylic emulsion, and diamines.[32,33]

Production and trade

Activity	Quantity	Year
Export	0 t (of ‘Acrylonitrile’)	2021[34]
Import	2,546 t (of ‘Acrylonitrile’)	2021[34]

t = tonne

Environmental Exposures Overview

According to Health Canada, the main route of exposure to acrylonitrile for the general population is indoor air, followed by ambient air.[35] Exposure is expected to be higher near industrial point sources.[2]

Children may be exposed to higher levels than adults. This may be due to their lung surface to body weight ratio, lower excretion rates, and because concentrations may be higher closer to the ground (acrylonitrile is heavier than air).[2,36]

In Canada, the two major sources of acrylonitrile released into the environment are the organic chemical industry (97.4%) and municipal wastewater treatment facilities (2.6%).[2,35] During the 1990s, most acrylonitrile releases reported to the NPRI were from synthetic rubber manufacturers, although this sector voluntarily decreased their emissions by 66% between 1994 and 1999, primarily because one company controlled its fugitive emissions.[2]

In 2003, under CEPA 1999, notice was published in the Canadian Gazette requiring the synthetic rubber industry to prepare and implement Pollution Prevention Plans to reduce acrylonitrile emissions to the lowest achievable levels.[37] Emissions from plastic manufacture, however, have risen substantially since 2000, such that total emissions in 2006 were over four times the emissions in 2000.[38]

Tobacco smoke contributes to indoor air levels of acrylonitrile. In 1990, the ATSDR speculated that cigarette smoking would no longer be a major source of exposure since acrylonitrile use as a fumigant on stored tobacco crops had been discontinued.[2] Recent studies, however, report that acrylonitrile is emitted directly from cigarettes,[39] and that tobacco smoke is a significant source of acrylonitrile in indoor air.[39] Levels of acrylonitrile may remain elevated for several hours after smoking has ceased.[40]

In the past, vehicle exhaust was also a source of acrylonitrile. With the improved catalysts in engines today, little if any acrylonitrile is expected to enter the environment in this way.[35]

There is limited data to assess exposure to acrylonitrile via food.[35] Health Canada reports that the packaging is not currently extensively used in Canada in cases where food is in direct contact.[35]

The sale of food containing acrylonitrile is prohibited under the Food and Drug Act.[35] Acrylonitrile has not been detected above trace amounts in Canadian ambient surface water or drinking water.[3]

Searches of Environment Canada’s National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) and the US Consumer Product Information Database yielded the following results on current potential for exposure to acrylonitrile in Canada:

NPRI and US Consumer Product Information Database

NPRI 2015[38]
Substance name: ‘acrylonitrile’
Category	Quantity	Industry
Released into Environment	6.5 t	Plastic product manufacturing Paint, coating and adhesive manufacturing Other chemical product manufacturing (8 facilities)
Disposed of	1.4 t
Sent to off-site recycling	None

US Consumer Products 2016[41]
Search Term	Quantity	Product Type
‘acrylonitrile’	6	Sealant (3); Spackle (3)
‘acrylonitrile polymer’	1	Auto defogger (1)
‘acrylonitrile copolymer’	10	Olay® (9) and Gillette® (1) body washes
‘ABS copolymer’	4	cement (4)

t = tonne

Occupational Exposures Overview

Inhalation and dermal contact are the most important routes of occupational exposure.[3]

CAREX Canada estimates that 4,100 Canadians are exposed to acrylonitrile in the workplace. The largest industrial groups exposed are plastic product manufacturing, followed by rubber product and motor vehicle parts manufacturing. Occupations that are most exposed to acrylonitrile include plastic processing machine operators, rubber processing machine operators, and plastic products assemblers, finishers, and inspectors.

A risk assessment by the EU summarized European occupational exposure data and identified the highest mean exposures in fibre production, although they were still ≤ 1 ppm.[42] Further exposures can occur during industrial processes such as burning synthetic polymers, working with glues and adhesives, and firefighting.[43] Firefighters may be exposed to acrylonitrile because the chemical can be released from burning plastics.[43] However, acrylonitrile is very flammable itself and is likely to burn off in a fire, producing hydrogen cyanide, another very toxic gas.[3]

For more information, see the occupational exposure estimate for acrylonitrile.

Occupational Estimate

Sources

Photo: Wikimedia Commons, Jacorna

1. National Toxicology Program (NTP). 14th report on carcinogens for Acrylonitrile (2016) (PDF)

2. Environment and Climate Change Canada. Pollution Prevention Plan for Acrylonitrile (2000)

3. Internationally Peer Reviewed Chemical Safety Information (INCHEM). CICAD 39 – Acrylonitrile (2002)

4. US National Library of Medicine. PubChem (Search term: ‘acrylonitrile’)

5. Stayner, Leslie T et al. Carcinogenicity of talc and acrylonitrile. Lancet Oncol. 2024.

6. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Acrylonitrile (1990) (PDF)

7. Ministry of Justice. Canada Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (SOR/86-304) (2019)

8. Government of Alberta. Occupational Health and Safety Code. Alberta Regulation 87/2009 (2019) (PDF)

9. WorkSafeBC. Occupational Health and Safety Regulation, BC Reg 296/97, Part 5 (2020)

10. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII) Manitoba Regulation 217/2006 Workplace Safety and Health Regulation (2022)

11. Justice and Office of the Attorney General. Government of New Brunswick’s General Regulation 91-191, under the Occupational Health and Safety Act (2020)

12. Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Regulation 5,12 Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (2018)

13. Government of the Northwest Territories. Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, R-039-2015 (2020) (PDF)

14. Government of Nova Scotia. Workplace Health and Safety Regulations made under Section 82 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (2015)

15. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII). Government of Nunavut’s Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, Nu Reg 003-2016 (2010)

16. Ontario Ministry of Labour. Current Occupational Exposure Limits for Ontario Workplaces Required Under Regulation 833 (2020)

17. Government of Prince Edward Island. Occupational Health and Safety Act Regulations Chapter 0-1 (2013) (PDF)

18. Government of Quebec. Regulation Respecting Occupational Health and Safety (2020)

19. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII) The Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, 1996 (2022)

20. The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII). Yukon’s Occupational Health Regulations, O.I.C. 1986/164 (2020) (PDF)

21. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Annotated PELs (2020)

22. Government of British Columbia. Contaminated Sites Regulation B.C. Reg. 375/96 (2021)

23. Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change. Ontario’s Ambient Air Quality Criteria (2019)

24. Alberta Environment and Parks. Ambient Air Quality Objectives (2019)

25. Government of Quebec. Clean Air Regulation, Q-2, r. 4.1 (2020)

26. Government of Ontario. O. Reg. 419/05: Air Pollution – Local Air Quality (2019)

27. Health Canada. Prioritization of the DSL (2006)

28. Environment and Climate Change Canada. CEPA List of Toxic Substances (2020)

29. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). National Classification System for Contaminated Sites (2008) (PDF)

30. Environment Canada. National Pollutant Release Inventory: Substance list (2019)

31. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Monograph summary, Volume 71 (1999) (PDF)

32. Environment Canada. Fact Sheet – Acrylonitrile (2021)

33. Environment Canada. List of Toxic Substances: Acrylonitrile (2016)

34. International Trade Centre. TradeMap (Free subscription required)

35. Health Canada and Environment Canada. Priority Substances List Assessment Report (CEPA) for Acrylonitrile (2000) (PDF)

36. Jain RB.“Levels of selected urinary metabolites of volatile organic compounds among children aged 6-11 years” . Environ Res2015;142:461-70.

37. Canada Gazette. Canada Gazette Part II, Vol. 137, No. 21 (2003)

38. Environment and Climate Change Canada. National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) data search (Substance name: (107-13-1) Acrylonitrile)

39. Singer BC, Hdogson AT, Nazaroff WW. “Gas-phase organics in environmental tobacco smoke: 2. Exposure-relevant emission factors and indirect exposures from habitual smoking.” Atmos Environ 2003;37:5551-5561.

40. Sleiman M, Logue JM, Luo W, Pankow JF, Gundel LA, Destaillats H. “Inhalable constituents of thirdhand tobacco smoke: chemical characterization and health impact considerations”. Environ Sci Technol. 2014;48(22):13093-101.

41. Consumer Product Information Database (CPID). What’s in it? (2022) (Search term: ‘Acrylonitrile’)

42. European Union. Risk Assessment Report: Acrylonitrile (2004) (PDF)

43. Haz-Map. Hazardous Agents: Acrylonitrile (accessed December 2022)

NEXT: Occupational Exposures >>

CAREX Canada

School of Population and Public Health

University of British Columbia
Vancouver Campus
370A - 2206 East Mall
Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3
CANADA

Email: [email protected]

FAQs
Terms of Use
Glossary

Acrylonitrile – Occupational Exposures

by CAREXCanada | Feb 26, 2019

SUBSTANCE PROFILE

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES

RESOURCES

Acrylonitrile Occupational Exposures

Overview

Prevalence Estimate

Methods and Data

Acrylonitrile Occupational Exposures

Overview

Inhalation and dermal contact are the most important routes of occupational exposure.[1] CAREX Canada estimates that 4,100 Canadians are exposed to acrylonitrile in the workplace.

Prevalence Estimate

Results show that nearly 4,100 Canadians are exposed to acrylonitrile at work; 72% of these workers are male. The largest industrial groups exposed are plastic and rubber products manufacturing (where most acrylonitrile is used in Canada), in addition to motor vehicle parts manufacture (where acrylonitrile is used to make foams and plastics), and the resin and synthetic fibre industry.

When exposure is examined by occupation, the largest exposed group is plastic processing machine operators (2,700 workers, or 2/3 of all exposed workers), followed by rubber processing machine operators (590 workers), and plastic products assemblers and finishers (290 workers).

The number of workers exposed to acrylonitrile decreased by approximately 1,800 workers from 2006 to 2016 (a 31% decrease). This was primarily driven by a decrease in the number of workers in the plastics and rubber manufacturing industries.

Workers exposed to acrylonitrile by industry in 2016

Workers exposed to acrylonitrile by region in 2016

Click the second tab to view total number of workers exposed.

* = < 50 workers