PFAS Profile
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS – MULTIPLE CLASSIFICATIONS (IARC 1, 2B)
Contents
PFAS Profile
QUICK SUMMARY
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A group of synthetic fluorinated compounds used in coatings, textiles, cosmetics, paper packaging, and many other commercial and industrial products
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Associated cancer: Kidney and testicular cancers (limited evidence)
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Most important route of exposure: Ingestion
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Uses: Firefighting foams, consumer food packaging, paper utensils, shipping and material goods packaging, non-stick cookware, textiles, cosmetics, and more
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Occupational exposures: Workers at highest risk include fluorochemical production workers, firefighters, and ski wax technicians
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Environmental exposures: Via contaminated air, soil, dust, food, and water
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Fast fact: PFAS are also known as ‘forever chemicals’ due to their extremely persistent properties and resistance to degradation.
General Information
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of synthetic chemicals made up of over 4,700 fluorinated compounds, including perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids (LC-PFCA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (PFCA), and hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (“GenX”).[1,2] Most PFAS are crystalline or powdery solids, but shorter chain compounds may also be found in liquid forms.[2]
PFAS have been used extensively since the 1940s in a wide variety of consumer and industrial products due to their water- and oil-repellant properties.[1] They are extremely resistant to degradation, making them highly persistent in the environment and ubiquitous worldwide as contaminants in air, soil, and surface and groundwater. Some PFAS bioaccumulate in humans and animals, and they have also been detected in blood serum, breast milk, and umbilical cord.[1,2,3]
PFOA is currently classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as Group 1, carcinogenic to humans, on the basis of sufficient evidence for cancer in experimental animals and strong mechanistic evidence for epigenetic alterations and immunosuppression in exposed humans (4). Limited evidence was also found for renal cell carcinoma and testicular cancer in humans for PFOA. PFOS is classified as Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans, on the basis of strong mechanistic evidence across test systems, including in exposed humans.[4]
Other health impacts associated with PFAS exposure include increases in cholesterol levels, lower antibody responses to some vaccines, changes in liver enzymes, and pregnancy-induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia (5). Due to the wide range of PFAS types and interactions combined with multiple sources of exposure, there are concerns for cumulative effects on health, but they remain relatively unknown.[2]
Regulations and Guidelines
Occupational exposure limits (OEL)[5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19]
| Canadian Jurisdiction | Compound (in air) | OEL | |
| Twa | stel | ||
| AB, BC, MB, NB, NL, NS, ON, PE, QC | Ammonium perfluorooctanoate | 0.01 mg/m3 [sk] | |
| NT, NU, SK | Ammonium perfluorooctanoate | 0.01 mg/m3 [sk] | 0.03 mg/m3 [sk] |
| AB, BC, MB, NB, NL, NS, ON, PE | Perfluorobutyl ethylene | 100 ppm | |
| NT, NU, SK | Perfluorobutyl ethylene | 100 ppm | 150 ppm |
| AB, BC, MB, NB, NL, NS, NT, NU, ON, PE, QC, SK | Perfluoroisobutylene | C 0.01 ppm | |
| YT | None listed | ||
| Other Jurisdictions | |||
| ACGIH TLV 2024 | Ammonium perfluorooctanoate | 0.01 mg/m3 [sk] | |
| Perfluorobutyl ethylene | 100 ppm | ||
| Perfluoroisobutylene | C 0.01 ppm | ||
mg/m3= milligrams per cubic meter
twa = time-weighted average limit (8 hr workday/40 hr workweek)
stel = short-term exposure limit (15 minute maximum)
sk = skin
ppm = parts (volume) of substance per million parts (volume) of air
C = ceiling limit
ACGIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
TLV = threshold limit value
Canadian environmental guidelines and standards*
| Jurisdiction | Compound | Limit | Year |
| Health Canada objective | 25 specific PFAS |
Drinking water: 30 ng/L |
2023[20] |
| Drinking Water Guidelines (Canada, AB, BC) | PFOS | 0.0006 mg/L (MAC) | 2018 – 2023[21,22,23] |
| Drinking Water Guidelines (Canada, AB, BC) | PFOA | 0.0002 mg/L (MAC) | 2018 – 2023[21,22,23] |
| Health Canada | PFOS |
TRV: (Oral TDI) 6 x 10-5 mg/kgBW-day |
2021[24] |
| Health Canada | PFOA |
TRV: (Oral TDI) 2.1 x 10-5 mg/kgBW-day |
2021[24] |
|
Atlantic Risk Based Corrective Action (RBCA)(NB, NL, NS, PEI) Human Health-Based Tier I Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) |
Select PFAS |
Sets potable groundwater standards for: Agricultural, residential/parkland, commercial and industrial sites: |
2022[25] |
| Select PFAS |
Sets soil standards for: Agriculture and residential/parkland sites: Commercial sites: Industrial sites: |
2021[26] | |
| PFOS | Sets soil standards (with potable groundwater) for all sites: 0.35 mg/kg
Sets soil standards (with non-potable groundwater) for: |
2021[27] | |
| Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME): Canadian Guidelines for the Protection of Environmental and Human Health (CEQGs) | PFOS | Sets soil guidelines for: Agricultural, residential/parkland, commercial, industrial sites: 0.01 mg/kg dry weight
Sets groundwater guidelines for: |
2021[28] |
| BC’s Contaminated Sites Regulation, BC Reg 375/96 | PFOS | Sets soil standards for: Agricultural and low-density residential sites: 1 μg/g Urban park and high-density residential sites: 2.5 μg/g Commercial sites: 7.5 μg/g Industrial sites: 200 μg/g
Sets soil standards (with groundwater used for drinking water) for: Drinking water standards: 0.3 μg/L |
2021[29] |
| PFOA | Drinking water standards: 0.2 μg/L | ||
| PFBS |
Sets soil standards for: Agricultural and low-density residential sites: 300 μg/g Sets soil standards (with groundwater used for drinking water): Drinking water standards: 80 μg/L |
||
| Canadian Food Inspection Agency† | PFOS | Interim Standard: Municipal biosolids intended for use as commercial fertilizers (before they are imported or sold in Canada): < 50 ppb of PFOS on dry weight basis |
2024[30] |
ng/L = nanograms per liter
mg/L = milligrams per liter
mg/kg = milligrams per kilogram
mg/kgBW-day = per milligram per kilogram of body weight per day
μg/g = micrograms per gram
μg/L = micrograms per liter
ppb = parts per billion
MAC = maximum allowable concentration
TRV = toxicological reference value
TDI = total daily intake
*Standards are legislated and legally enforceable, while guidelines describe concentrations of contaminants in the environment (e.g. air, water) that are protective against adverse health, environmental, or aesthetic (e.g. odour) effects
†Enforcement of this interim standard will begin October 18, 2024
Canadian agencies/organizations
| Agency | Designation/Position | Year |
| CEPA – 1999 | Toxic Substances List: Schedule 1 |
PFOS: 2006[31] PFOA: 2012[31] LC-PFCA: 2012[31] |
| Environment and Climate Change Canada | Prohibition of Certain Toxic Substances Regulation: Schedule 2 – Prohibits manufacture, use, sale, offer for sale, and import of PFOA, PFOS, LC-PFCA, their salts and precursors with limited number of exemptions |
2016[32] |
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New Substances Notification Regulations (Chemicals and Polymers) (NSNR) New PFAS if intended to import or manufacture in Canada must be notified to NSNR, and are subject to appropriate risk assessments and regulatory actions |
1994 onwards[33] | |
| Canada-United States Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) | PFOA, PFOS and LC-PFCA included in the list of chemicals of mutual concern (CMCs) | 2016[34] |
CEPA = Canadian Environmental Protection Act
International agencies/organizations
| Agency | Designation/Position | Year |
| UNEP – Stockholm Convention |
Annex A (Elimination): PFOA, PFHxS, its salts and related compounds Annex B (Restriction): PFOS, its salts, and related compounds |
PFOS: 2009[35] PFOA: 2019[35] PFHxS: 2022[35] |
| ECHA REACH | Annex XVII limits concentration of PFOA and its salts to 25 ppb and 1000 ppb | 2017[36,37] |
| ECHA REACH’s Drinking Water Directive | Limits sum of PFAS in drinking water to 0.10 µg/L | 2020[38] |
ppb = parts per billio
μg/L = micrograms per liter
UNEP = United Nations Environment Programme
ECHA REACH = European Chemicals Agency – Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals
PFAS was not included in other Canadian government guidelines, standards, or chemical listings reviewed.
Main Uses
PFAS can be found in a wide range of commercial and industrial products due to their oil- and water-repellant properties and high resistance to chemical, physical, and thermal degradation. Some examples include textiles (e.g. carpets, water-proof jackets), non-stick cookware, cosmetics, coatings (e.g. architectural materials), cable and wiring, anti-reflective materials, paints (e.g. aerosol-spray, water-based, solvent-based), flooring materials, varnishes, personal protective equipment (e.g. masks, anti-fog glasses), and ski waxes.[39,40]
A major use of PFAS is in consumer food packaging and paper utensils (e.g. cups and plates), as well as shipping and material goods packaging (3). Between 2018 and 2020, approximately 2% of U.S. and Canadian food packaging contained intentionally added polymeric PFAS, which amounts to an estimated 9,000 tonnes in the U.S. and 940 tonnes in Canada per year.[41,42]
PFAS, particularly PFOS, is also a primary component in many firefighting foams such as aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF). AFFF is mainly used by firefighters and military/civil aviation industries for training purposes and to rapidly extinguish hydrocarbon fuel fires.[43]
The aerospace, mining, chemical production, electronics, pharmaceutical, automotive, and construction industries also use various PFAS.[3]
Canadian Production and Trade
Canada complies with the Prohibition of Certain Toxic Substances Regulations (PCTSR), which prohibit the manufacture, use, sale, offer for sale, and import of PFOS, PFOA, LC-PFCA, their precursors, and products that contain these substances, with limited exemptions (e.g. in AFFF containing PFOS at a maximum concentration of 10ppm).[32] As of September 2024, these regulations are being reviewed to introduce further restrictions or remove existing exemptions, and lead to the phasing out of products like AFFF containing PFOA and/or LC-PFCAs by as early as 2025.[44]
Historically, PFOA and PFOS were imported into Canada but not manufactured. Canada imported approximately 600 tonnes of perfluorinated alkyl compounds between 1997 and 2004, of which 43% were PFOS and their precursors. This includes AFFF containing PFOS used by firefighters and military and civil aviation industries.[33] It is estimated that approximately 300 tonnes of this AFFF stockpile (which contains about 3 tonnes of PFOS) of which 10% is used annually.[33] Details on exact usage are unknown.
The New Substances Notifications Regulations (NSNR) ensure reporting of any substances with the intent to manufacture or import in Canada and relevant assessments for potential risks to human health and the environment. Since 1994, approximately 270 new PFAS have been notified to the NSNR, of which 90 have been included in the Domestic Substances List (DSL) and 28 are intended for manufacture with limitations within Canada.[39] Approximately one-third of the 270 PFAS were subject to risk management measures under the NSNR to mitigate impacts to human health and/or the environment.[39]
The Cosmetics Regulations of the Food and Drugs Act require reporting of ingredients and their concentrations for cosmetics manufactured and sold in Canada. Since 1993, 3,526 notifications for cosmetics with one or more PFAS have been submitted. Of these, 87% included PFAS as an ingredient, at or below a concentration of 3%. A total of 69 unique PFAS ingredients have been identified so far, but details on exact usage are unknown.[39]
Trade Data
| Activity | Quantity | Year |
| Import |
3 t of ‘Perfluorooctane sulphonic acid’ 1 t of ‘Lithium perfluorooctane sulphonate’ 155 t of ‘Salts of perfluorooctane sulphonic acid (excl. ammonium, lithium and potassium perfluorooctane sulphonates) |
2023[45] |
t = tonnes
‘PFAS’, ‘PFOA’, ‘PFHxS’, ‘GenX’, or ‘PFBS’ were not included in the TradeMap database for Canada between 2001 and 2023.
Environmental Exposures Overview
Ingesting contaminated drinking water and food is the main route of exposure for the general population.[4] Other potential routes include dermal contact with consumer products and inhaling contaminated air and dust.[2]
PFAS are not naturally found in the environment. Their widespread prevalence is primarily the result of unregulated industrial use and improper waste disposal, as well as their high persistence. Presence in food, air, water, soil, and dust has led to the detection of PFOA and PFOS in almost all Canadians tested.[46] PFAS have been detected in landfill leachate, which can contaminate nearby water, soil, and air.[47] Release of contaminated effluent and biosolids by municipal wastewater treatment systems can also contaminate groundwater, soil, and agriculture.[48] Sites and water bodies near points of AFFF release (e.g., airports, training facilities) may also be contaminated with PFAS. The Federal Contaminated Sites Inventory shows over 100 sites with confirmed or suspected PFAS contamination in Canada.[49] The impacted sites can further contaminate surrounding soil, public drinking water systems, and private drinking water wells. Canadians living near such highly-impacted contaminated sites are expected to have higher than normal exposure.[20]
Canada has no published data on PFAS levels in private drinking wells and water treatment plants. However, national surveys conducted by Health Canada and studies from Quebec and Ontario have detected PFAS in samples of tap water and drinking water treatment systems, with the most common forms being PFOA and PFOS.[39] The total population estimated to be exposed to PFAS through drinking water remains unknown in Canada.
Canadians may also be exposed to PFAS via their diet. PFAS can enter the food chain through processing equipment, animal feed, food packaging migration, and contaminated soil and water (e.g. through food grown or raised near contaminated sites, fish caught from contaminated water).[50,51] An average daily exposure of PFAS for Canadians via food is estimated to be 250 ng/day (with 110 ng coming from PFOS).[52]
PFAS is detected in outdoor air, indoor air, and dust. In outdoor air, elevated levels are detected near landfills and waste management plants, but exposure via outdoor air is expected to be negligible for the general public.[53,54] Exposure is expected to be higher via indoor air.[53] Household products such as cleaning agents, floor waxes, paints, and commercial products such as clothing and upholstery can release PFAS in the air and dust in residential and non-residential indoor environments.[55] Exposure for adults in contaminated indoor environments occurs primarily via inhalation, while for children, exposure primarily occurs via dust ingestion from hand-to-mouth transfer.[46,56]
PFAS are also capable of long-range travel through air and water, leading to detection in remote regions such as the Arctic and Subarctic, including surrounding ecosystems and wildlife.[57,58]
There is currently insufficient data for CAREX Canada to assess environmental population exposure to PFAS through its many routes of exposure.
PFAS, PFOA, PFOS, or any other compound within the PFAS group are not reportable to the National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI), however PFAS are under consideration for addition to this Inventory in the 2025 reporting year.[33] A search of the US Consumer Product Information Database (CPID) listed the following products:
US Consumer Products 2023[59]
Results: 1 product
| Search Term | Quantity | Product Type |
| ‘perfluorooctanoic acid’ | 1 | Hardwood and laminate floor refinisher |
Occupational Exposures Overview
For occupationally exposed populations, inhalation is the main route of exposure, followed by dermal absorption and dust ingestion.[4]
Occupational groups facing elevated PFAS exposure include workers in fluorochemical manufacturing, firefighters, and professional ski waxers.[4,60,61] Workers in fluorochemical manufacturing are exposed predominantly through inhalation, though levels have decreased since 2002 due to stricter regulations and phaseout initiatives.[62,63]
Firefighters can be exposed to PFAS via several sources. Burning materials such as building components, electronics, and furnishings can release PFAS and contaminate surrounding air, smoke, and dust.[64] This may lead to exposure via inhalation, dermal absorption if it transfers from their gear to the skin, or incidental ingestion of dusts from gear. Similarly, use of AFFF that contains PFAS at fire scenes or during training can result in exposure via inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion.[64,65] In addition, protective, flame-resistant personal protective gear used by firefighters may contain PFAS, which can degrade over time through wear, washing, and exposure to high temperatures. This can lead to exposure through skin contact, inhalation or ingestion, although the extent of this exposure is under investigation.[66,67] PFAS can also accumulate inside fire stations due to repeated use of AFFF and gear that contains PFAS, resulting in exposure via ingestion or inhalation of contaminated dust and indoor air.[65,67]
Professional ski waxers and athletes may be exposed during the waxing process, which can release PFAS into indoor air and dust.[68,69,70]
Owing to the wide range of PFAS applications, exposure may also occur across many other industries and occupations including waste management, mining, chemical production, electroplating, energy, food and paper packaging, oil and gas production, and construction.[71,72,73] However, studies on these industries remain limited.
Sources
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