Nickel Profile
METALS – MULTIPLE CLASSIFICATIONS (IARC 1, 2B)
Contents
Nickel Profile
QUICK SUMMARY
- A silvery, hard metal or gray powder not commonly found in nature
- Associated cancers: Lung, nasal, and paranasal cancers
- Most important routes of exposure: Inhalation, skin contact
- Uses: Found in stainless steel, nickel-based alloys, electroplating, casting and alloy steels, and rechargeable batteries
- Environmental exposures: Primary exposure to nickel for most is from food and water; however, nickel is not carcinogenic via ingestion, only via inhalation
- Occupational exposures: Approx. 100,000 Canadians are exposed at work, primarily welders and related machine operators
- Fast fact: As of 2014, four Canadian provinces had active nickel mines (Manitoba, Newfoundland, Ontario, and Quebec).
General Information
Metallic nickel is a silvery, hard metal or a gray powder.[1] It is not commonly found in nature.[2] Nickel typically exists as a trace component of many different minerals, particularly those containing magnesium and iron.[2] In Canada, nickel is usually found in sulphide ores, especially pentlandite, together with copper, cobalt, gold, and silver.[3] Nickel’s hardness, strength, and resistance to corrosion and heat make it an ideal component in alloys.[4]
Most nickel compounds are green to black in colour, turn yellow when heated, and dissolve easily in water.[1] There are numerous other synonyms and product names for nickel and its compounds; see Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) for more information.[5]
Nickel compounds were classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as Group 1, carcinogenic to humans, with a definite link to lung, nasal, and paranasal cancer in humans.[6] This evaluation was primarily linked to nickel compounds containing oxygen and sulphur, which are commonly encountered in nickel refining work. However, epidemiological evidence for soluble nickel was conclusive enough to classify nickel compounds in general as carcinogenic to humans.[6] The Group 1 classification for nickel compounds was reaffirmed in the 2012 IARC review of Group 1 agents.[7]
Metallic nickel and alloys were classified as Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans. This classification is based on insufficient epidemiological evidence in humans and sufficient evidence for lung cancer in rats.[6] Metallic nickel also caused local sarcomas after injection in rats and hamsters. Nickel alloys display limited evidence of carcinogenicity in animals.
Working with nickel (e.g. in nickel refining or welding) can cause chronic bronchitis and decreased lung function, as well as immunological and renal effects.[4] It is not clear if these effects are due entirely to nickel, since exposure to other substances (e.g. cobalt) also occurs in these settings.[4] Nickel exposure is also a very common cause of allergic contact dermatitis. An estimated 10-20% of the population reports a reaction to nickel, usually from jewellery and other consumer products.[4] Some people who are sensitized to nickel may have asthma that is related to their exposure.[4]
Regulations and Guidelines
Occupational exposure limits (OEL)[8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22]
| Canadian Jurisdictions | Nickel compound | OEL |
|---|---|---|
| Canada Labour Code | Elemental | 1.5 mg/m3[i] |
| Insoluble | 0.2 mg/m3[i] | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel subsulfide | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm [c] | |
| AB | Elemental | 1.5 mg/m3 |
| Insoluble | 0.2 mg/m3 | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3 | |
| Nickel subsulfide | 0.1 mg/m3 | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm | |
| BC | Elemental | 0.05 mg/m3 |
| Insoluble | 0.05 mg/m3 | |
| Soluble | 0.05 mg/m3 | |
| Nickel subsulfide | 0.10 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.001 ppm | |
| MB, NL, NS, PE | Elemental | 1.5 mg/m3[i] |
| Insoluble | 0.2 mg/m3[i] | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel subsulfide | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm [c] | |
| NB | Elemental | 1.0 mg/m3 |
| Insoluble | 1.0 mg/m3 | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3 | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm | |
| NT, NU, SK | Elemental | 1.5 mg/m3[i]; 3.0 mg/m3 [stel] |
| Insoluble | 0.2 mg/m3[i]; 0.6 mg/m3 [stel] | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3[i]; 0.3 mg/m3 [stel] | |
| Nickel subsulfide | 0.1 mg/m3[i]; 0.3 mg/m3 [stel] | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm; 0.15 ppm [stel] | |
| ON | Elemental | 1.0 mg/m3[i] |
| Insoluble | 0.2 mg/m3[i] | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel subsulfide | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm [c] | |
| QC | Elemental | 1.0 mg/m3 |
| Insoluble | 1.0 mg/m3 | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3 | |
| Nickel sulfide roasting, fume and dust | 1.0 mg/m3 [em] | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.001 mg/m3; 0.007 ppm [stel] | |
| YT | Insoluble | 1.0 mg/m3; 3 mg/m3[stel] |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3; 0.3 mg/m3[stel] | |
| Nickel sulfide roasting, fume and dust | 1.0 mg/m3 | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm | |
| Other Jurisdiction | Nickel compound | OEL |
| ACGIH 2020 TLV | Elemental | 1.5 mg/m3[i] |
| Insoluble | 0.2 mg/m3[i] | |
| Soluble | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel subsulfide | 0.1 mg/m3[i] | |
| Nickel carbonyl | 0.05 ppm [c] |
mg/m3 = milligrams per cubic metre
i = inhalable fraction
ppm = parts per million
c = ceiling limit
stel = short term exposure limit (15 min. maximum)
em = exposure must be reduced to a minimum
ACGIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
TLV = threshold limit value
Canadian environmental guidelines and standards*
| Jurisdiction | Limit | Year |
|---|---|---|
| BC’s Source Drinking Water Quality Guidelines | 80 µg/L | 2020[23] |
| Alberta Ambient Air Quality Objectives | 1 hour: 6 µg/m3 | 2005[24] |
| Annual Average: 0.05 µg/m3 | 2005 [24] | |
| Manitoba Ambient Air Quality Criteria | 24 hour: 2 µg/m3 MAC | 2005[25] |
| Ontario Ambient Air Quality Criteria | 24 hour (Ni in PM10): 0.1 µg/m3 | 2016[26] |
| 24 hour (Ni in TSP): 0.2 µg/m3 | 2016[26] | |
| Annual (Ni in PM10): 0.02 µg/m3 | 2016[26] | |
| Annual (Ni in TSP): 0.04 µg/m3 | 2016[26] | |
| Ontario’s Air Pollution – Local Air Quality Regulation | Annual standard: 0.04 µg/m3; Prohibited discharge into the air if the concentration of nickel exceeds the standard | 2020[27] |
| Quebec’s Clean Air Regulation | 24 hour limit: 0.014 µg/m3 (measured in PM10); Prohibited discharge into the air if the concentration of nickel exceeds the standard | 2014[28] |
| BC’s Contaminated Sites Regulation, BC Reg 375/96 |
Sets soil standards for the protection of human health: Agricultural and low density residential sites: 450 μg/g Urban park and high density residential sites: 900 μg/g Commercial sites: 3,000 μg/g Industrial sites: 80,000 μg/g
Drinking water: 80 µg/L |
2017[29] |
*Standards are legislated and legally enforceable, while guidelines (including Ontario ambient air quality criteria) describe concentrations of contaminants in the environment (e.g. air, water) that are protective against adverse health, environmental, or aesthetic (e.g. odour) effects
µg/m3 = micrograms per cubic metre
μg/g = micrograms per gram
µg/L = micrograms per litre
MAC = maximum acceptable concentration
PM10 = particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter
TSP = total suspended particulate
Canadian agencies/organizations
| Agency | Designation/Position | Year |
|---|---|---|
| Health Canada | DSL – eight nickel compounds are included (already risk managed) | 2006[30] |
| CEPA | Schedule 1, paragraph ‘a’ | 1999[31] |
| National Classification System for Contaminated Sites | Rank: “High hazard” | 2008[32] |
| PMRA list of formulants | List 4B: List 4B contains formulants, some of which may be toxic, for which there are sufficient data to reasonably conclude that the specific use pattern of the pest control product will not adversely affect public health and the environment. | 2020[33] |
| Environment Canada’s National Pollutant Release Inventory | NPRI Part (Threshold Category): 1A, Reportable to NPRI if manufactured, processed, or otherwise used at quantities greater than: 10 tonnes. Total of the pure element and the equivalent weight of the element contained in any compound, alloy or mixture. | 2016[34] |
DSL = domestic substance list
CEPA = Canadian Environmental Protection Act
Nickel and its compounds were not included in other Canadian government guidelines, standards, or chemical listings reviewed.
Main Uses
Nickel compounds are used in electroplating, various pigments, and nickel-cadmium batteries. They also act as intermediates in other reactions.[7] The largest use of nickel worldwide is in stainless steel (65% of global usage) and other alloys (20% of usage).[35] Pure nickel is also used as a catalyst and in magnets, electrical contacts and electrodes, spark plugs, machinery parts, and surgical and dental prostheses.[1]
Canadian Production and Trade
In 2020, four Canadian provinces (Manitoba, Newfoundland, Ontario, and Quebec) had active nickel mines.[36] Total production from those mines that year was over 167,000 tonnes,[36] with the largest amount originating from the Sudbury area.[37]
Production and trade
| Activity | Quantity | Year |
|---|---|---|
| Canadian Production | 158,138 t | 2020[36] |
| Export | 6,323 t of ‘nickel ores and concentrates’ | 2021[38] |
| Export | 100,547 t of ‘unwrought nickel’ | 2021[38] |
| Import | 40,827 t of ‘nickel ores and concentrates’ | 2021[38] |
| Import | 1,349 t of ‘unwrought nickel’ | 2021[38] |
t = tonne
Environmental Exposures Overview
The primary source of exposure to nickel for most Canadians is food and water.[7] However, nickel is not carcinogenic via ingestion; inhalation exposure is the only pathway linked to cancer.
Nickel is found naturally in soil and in meteorites. It is also released and transported in the environment from windblown dust and volcanic eruptions.[4] Anthropogenic sources include nickel mining and industries that produce alloys or nickel compounds. Oil and coal burning power plants and trash incinerators are additional sources.[4] The type of nickel in the atmosphere depends on the emission source.[4] CAREX Canada estimates that nickel concentrations in outdoor air (moderate data quality) and indoor air (low data quality) do not result in an elevated risk of cancer.
Searches of Environment Canada’s National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) and the US Consumer Product Information Database yielded the following results on current potential for exposure to nickel in Canada:
NPRI and US Consumer Product Information Database
| NPRI 2015[39] | ||
|---|---|---|
| Search term: ‘nickel and its compounds’ | ||
| Category | Quantity | Industry |
| Released into Environment | 297 t | Petroleum refineries, power generation, nickel refineries, mining and foundries (268 facilities) |
| Disposed of | 214,996 t | |
| Sent to off-site recycling | 4,385 t | |
t = tonne
| US Consumer Products 2015[40] | ||
|---|---|---|
| Search Term | Quantity | Product Type |
| ‘nickel’ | 5 | Electrical grease, batteries, and concrete colourant |
For more information, see the environmental exposure estimate for nickel.
Occupational Exposures Overview
The main routes of occupational exposure to nickel include inhaling particles and fumes, and dermal contact.[1]
CAREX Canada estimates that approximately 100,000 Canadians are exposed to nickel in their workplace. The largest industrial groups exposed to nickel are commercial and industrial machinery and equipment repair and maintenance, architectural and structural metals manufacturing, and automotive repair and maintenance.
The largest occupational groups exposed to nickel are welders (working with stainless steel), followed by construction millwrights and industrial mechanics, and machining tool operators, and automotive service technicians and mechanics. Occupations that involve producing nickel alloy and stainless steel, welding, electroplating, grinding, and cutting operations may be exposed as well.[4]
According to the Burden of Occupational Cancer in Canada project, occupational exposure to nickel leads to approximately 170 lung cancers each year in Canada, based on past exposures (1961-2001).[41,42] This amounts to 0.7% of lung cancer cases diagnosed annually, and does not include the burden of lung cancer due to nickel exposure during welding, which is captured in the welding fumes estimate. Most occupational lung cancers associated with nickel exposure occur among workers in the manufacturing sector. These cancers also occur among workers in mining, oil, and gas extraction sector.[42]
For detailed estimates of exposure to nickel, see the occupational exposures tab.
Sources
Photo: Wikimedia Commons, Materialscientist
Other Resources
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). ToxFAQ Sheet: Nickel (2005) (PDF)
- International Nickel Study Group website
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